Banerjee Unearths Indus Valley Past

Rakhaldas Banerjee: Unearthing India's Buried Bronze Age Past

In the annals of early 20th-century Indian archaeology, Rakhaldas Banerjee emerges as a figure of brilliance and complexity. His revolutionary findings dramatically altered perceptions regarding the subcontinent's distant history. Nevertheless, his name recognition lags considerably behind the magnitude of his accomplishments. Through excavations at Mohenjo-daro, Banerjee brought to light an expansive, advanced metropolis from the Bronze Age. This urban centre was integral to the Indus Valley Civilisation (alternatively known as Harappan). Despite the discovery's profound nature, Banerjee's professional life and enduring reputation were obscured by disputes and friction. His experiences shed light on the difficulties Indian academics encountered operating under British colonial administration. The narrative also illuminates the complicated interplay involving discovery, acknowledgement, and individual temperament.

The Pioneer with Bengali Roots

Rakhaldas Banerjee, who also went by Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay, was born 12 April 1885. His birthplace was Baharampur, within the Murshidabad district of West Bengal, into an affluent Zamindar landowning family. Reports suggest the medieval constructions prevalent in the area captivated the young Banerjee. It is probable this early fascination guided his later academic focus towards historical subjects. His scholastic path demonstrated potential early on. From Presidency College in Kolkata, he secured an honours degree in History during 1907. Subsequently, Calcutta University conferred upon him a Master's degree in 1911. Even while pursuing his studies, Banerjee exhibited an exploratory mindset and a hands-on methodology for research. A task concerning India's Scythian era motivated a journey to an adjacent state. His purpose was seeking original sources plus artefacts held in archives, illustrating his dedication towards direct historical inquiry.

Entering the Archaeological Survey

Banerjee commenced his professional trajectory at Kolkata's Indian Museum. His destined career, however, was associated with the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). He affiliated with the ASI during 1910, starting as an assistant for excavations. His sharp mind and commitment facilitated swift advancement. He attained the Assistant Superintendent designation by 1911. Palaeography, which involves studying ancient scripts, and epigraphy, the analysis of inscriptions, were significant focal points of his initial work. His proficiency within these disciplines garnered acclaim. For his 1919 book, The Origin of the Bengali Script, Calcutta University granted him the Jubilee Research Prize. This publication marked him as an innovator in analysing the proto-Bangla writing system. His capabilities were noticeably apparent to his British superiors inside the ASI structure.

Advancement Through the Organisation

Banerjee's progression within the ASI hierarchy proceeded consistently. Attaining the rank of Superintending Archaeologist for the Western Circle occurred in 1917, when he was merely 32 years old. This advancement represented a major juncture in his professional life. It gave him oversight of archaeological undertakings throughout a large territory within British India. Surveying prospective locations, managing digs, and conserving unearthed monuments fell under his purview. The position necessitated considerable travel across isolated regions of the subcontinent. Banerjee took on this challenging duty, exploring arduous landscapes to find ancient textual inscriptions, man-made objects, and structural remnants. His persistent efforts in the field prepared the way for his most celebrated finding. These early ASI years highlighted both his academic skill and his adventurous disposition.

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Initial Contact with Mohenjo-daro

Banerjee first came upon the location locally termed Mohenjo-daro in 1919, while serving his role within the Western Circle. Situated inside the Larkana District of Sindh (now part of Pakistan), the Sindhi name translates to "mound of the deceased". A Buddhist stupa visible at ground level initially captured Banerjee's interest. Prevailing assumptions indicated that any ruins lying beneath would probably belong to the Buddhist era, possibly only a couple of millennia old. Banerjee, nonetheless, observed inconsistencies. Discoveries like flint scraping tools hinted at a considerably deeper antiquity. His curiosity piqued, he initiated preliminary investigations and test excavations near the stupa over the period 1919 to 1920.

Exposing an Ancient Urban Centre

Returning for more extensive digging activities during the 1922-1923 season, Banerjee's team uncovered materials that fundamentally questioned established historical accounts. Below the Buddhist layers lay the remains of an urban area planned with meticulous care. Structures made of fired brick, streets with paving, and advanced drainage networks emerged from the soil. Banerjee retrieved numerous items, including characteristic seals featuring unfamiliar writing alongside animal figures, earthenware pottery, implements, and small statues. He perceived resemblances connecting these objects with artefacts dug up by Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni at Harappa, located roughly 400 miles northward in Punjab. Such parallels suggested a common, broadly distributed ancient culture.

Revelation of the Indus Valley Civilisation

The findings from Mohenjo-daro combined with those from Harappa were transformative. They disclosed the presence of a significant, hitherto unknown civilisation dating to the Bronze Age. This cultural entity, currently designated the Indus Valley or Harappan Civilisation, thrived circa 2500 BCE. In terms of extent and complexity, it stood comparable to contemporary civilisations in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Mohenjo-daro represented one of its most substantial urban hubs, calculated to cover 250 hectares. Features like its grid-patterned street layout, progressive sanitation facilities (including bathrooms plus covered sewers), buildings with multiple floors, and imposing structures such as the Great Bath indicated a highly evolved city-based society. Banerjee's research effectively added millennia to the recognised timeline of Indian city development.

Establishing Connections

Banerjee's perceptive observation identified vital links connecting Mohenjo-daro with Harappa. Seals retrieved from Mohenjo-daro displayed writing and symbolic representations identical to examples from Harappa. This linkage affirmed that both locations were part of the identical extensive cultural sphere. Subsequent investigation demonstrated the Indus Valley Civilisation's spread over nearly one million square kilometres. Its territory extended from present-day northeastern Afghanistan, across Pakistan, and into India's northwest. Banerjee's digs supplied essential proof illustrating the vast geographical reach and consistency of this ancient social formation. The Indus populace demonstrated exceptional technical abilities, encompassing standardised systems for weights and measures, metalworking techniques, and sophisticated seal engraving. Their cities stand among the globe's earliest instances of complex urban design.

Acknowledgement Postponed, Credit Contested

The immense consequence of the Mohenjo-daro find notwithstanding, Banerjee's specific contribution became entangled in dispute. John Marshall held the Director-General position at the ASI from 1902 until 1928 and formally declared the Indus Valley Civilisation's discovery internationally. His article appeared in The Illustrated London News during September 1924. Although Marshall supervised the ASI's overall operations, certain historians contend he excessively claimed credit related to the Mohenjo-daro results. Archaeologist P.K. Mishra, within his publication Rakhal Das Banerji: The Forgotten Archaeologist, argues Marshall withheld Banerjee's initial field reports, which were submitted as early as 1920 and 1922. Mishra posits that Marshall revised Banerjee's submissions, utilising them to form the foundation of his own significant work, Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization (1931).

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The Marshall Version of Events

Within his 1931 book, Marshall did offer recognition regarding Banerjee's input. His text stated: "Three other scholars whose names I cannot pass over in silence, are the late Mr. R. D. Banerji, to whom belongs the credit of having discovered, if not Mohenjo-daro itself, at any rate its high antiquity..." Yet, numerous observers believe this mention is insufficient. Marshall assumed direct oversight of the excavations beginning in the winter of 1925-26, following Banerjee's transfer. By that point, according to Mishra, Banerjee had already completed the essential investigations confirming the site's significance and ancient origins. Marshall's volume became the standard reference, influencing worldwide comprehension for many years. Consequently, Marshall's name gained widespread linkage with the discovery, whereas Banerjee frequently occupied only a marginal position in historical summaries.

A Complicated Individual

Banerjee's interactions with the ASI leadership, Marshall especially, seem intricate. Historian Nayanjot Lahiri, in Finding Forgotten Cities, depicts Banerjee as skilled yet challenging. Lahiri proposes Banerjee lacked finesse in social situations and had an imperious attitude that frequently annoyed colleagues plus superiors. This independent nature sometimes translated into neglecting established protocols within the ASI's colonial administrative framework. Lahiri provides documented cases where Banerjee purportedly operated without securing appropriate permissions. These incidents involved efforts to obtain photographs and inscriptions, attempts at moving artefacts between different institutions, and making acquisitions without prior sanction. Lahiri describes Banerjee as possessing diverse talents but observes his tendency towards alienating individuals hindered his career path.

Financial Oversight and Relocation

Project funding for Banerjee's Mohenjo-daro work ceased around 1924. Concurrently, his financial records underwent examination. Queries surfaced concerning expenditures connected to his excavation activities. Accusations involved utilising project monies for office furnishings and accumulating unusually high travel expenses. His justifications were apparently deemed unsatisfactory by authorities, who contemplated punitive measures. Amid this investigation, Banerjee submitted a request for relocation to the ASI's Eastern Circle. Lahiri implies this request offered officials a convenient way forward. Approval was granted for his transfer, effectively moving him away from Mohenjo-daro and the related monetary inquiries. He was destined never to revisit the location he brought to light.

The Affair of the Missing Sculpture

Banerjee's difficulties inside the ASI persisted within the Eastern Circle. A major dispute emerged in October 1925 concerning a statue that disappeared. Accompanied by assistants plus labourers, Banerjee visited a Hindu temple site in Madhya Pradesh. This shrine contained a valuable stone carving representing a Buddhist figure. Subsequent accounts stated the sculpture vanished following Banerjee's visit. Suspicion centred on him. Despite Banerjee forcefully rejecting any participation, a thorough investigation was launched. Officials eventually located the missing artefact in Calcutta (now Kolkata), allegedly within the residence of Banerjee's nephew. Although the formal probe ultimately cleared Banerjee owing to insufficient proof, the affair substantially harmed his professional standing.

Leaving the ASI

The statue dispute proved damaging to Banerjee's position inside the ASI. Notwithstanding his clearance, John Marshall purportedly advocated for his departure. Certain narratives propose Marshall exploited the situation as justification for removing a potentially problematic subordinate. Alternative views suggest Marshall genuinely lost confidence regarding Banerjee's ethical conduct. Irrespective of the exact reasons, the pressure intensified. Banerjee opted for voluntary retirement from the Archaeological Survey of India during 1926, concluding a turbulent 16-year tenure. His departure under unfavourable circumstances further dimmed the recognition of his previous accomplishments and input. The details surrounding his exit underscore the insecure situation Indian academics faced while navigating the involved power structures of the colonial period.

University Life and Closing Years

Upon leaving the ASI, Banerjee moved into the academic sphere. His initial teaching role was at the University of Calcutta. Banaras Hindu University (BHU) appointed him in 1928 to the esteemed Manindra Chandra Nandy chair focusing on Ancient Indian History and Culture. Despite achieving this academic position, monetary troubles reportedly beset his later life. Historian Tapati Guha-Thakurta noted his inclination towards extravagant expenditure on food, travel, and social engagements. This mode of living, possibly a remnant from his earlier wealth, became challenging to maintain based on a university professor's income. His period at BHU proved tragically brief. Rakhaldas Banerjee passed away prematurely 23 May 1930, aged only 45, in Kalighat, Calcutta. Some accounts note British officials disallowed a post-mortem analysis, leaving the specific reason for his early demise uncertain.

An Extensive Scholarly Contribution

Separate from the Mohenjo-daro finding, Banerjee generated a considerable volume of academic writing. His knowledge encompassed epigraphy, palaeography, numismatics (coin studies), along with art history. His publication The Origin of the Bengali Script (1919) continues to be regarded as a foundational text. He authored definitive analyses concerning medieval Indian coinage plus Gupta era sculpture and building design. His two-part Bangalar Itihas (History of Bengal), released in Bengali during 1914 and 1917, represented a pioneering scientifically approached history covering that region. Additional works included History of Orissa (1930, 1931), The Palas of Bengal (1915), The Temple of Siva at Bhumara (1924), and Bas Reliefs of Badami (1928). Several writings emerged after his death, such as Eastern Indian Medieval School of Sculpture (1933) and The Age of the Imperial Guptas (1933).

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Enduring Reputation and Acknowledgement

Rakhaldas Banerjee's impact, though debated, remains substantial. He is the archaeologist credited with initially grasping Mohenjo-daro's immense age. His research fundamentally reshaped the understanding of South Asian chronology. It established the presence of an indigenous, highly sophisticated urban culture preceding the Vedic times. This discovery contested colonial historical interpretations that frequently minimised India's pre-Aryan heritage. While disputes and purported actions by superiors like Marshall obscured his input during his life and shortly thereafter, contemporary scholarship increasingly aims to reinstate his significance. Historians alongside institutions, especially within Bengal, actively strive to ensure his contribution as Mohenjo-daro's discoverer gains appropriate acknowledgement. Kolkata's Indian Museum organised an exhibition in 2022 marking his 137th birth anniversary alongside the centenary related to the Harappan Civilization's finding.

Lasting Importance

Mohenjo-daro's discovery persists as among the 20th century's most crucial archaeological achievements. The city itself, granted UNESCO World Heritage status in 1980, offers precious understanding regarding early city development, technological advancement, and societal structure. Rakhaldas Banerjee's primary identification of the site's consequence and his careful excavation methodology established the foundation for all later comprehension concerning the Indus Valley Civilisation. Although his professional path encountered significant obstacles while dealing with institutional politics plus colonial power structures, his scientific offerings last. Rakhaldas Banerjee, the intricate and insightful explorer from Bengal, merits recognition as a central personality who revealed a lost segment of human history. His experiences continue providing inspiration for archaeologists and act as a prompt concerning the frequently neglected achievements of pioneering Indian academics.