Introduction to anthropology

Human beings tend to scrutinise and find reasons for everything that they come around the globe. Everything requires reasoning and scientific study. If so, the very subject of human beings, their origins, and the reasons behind the evolution of humanity also deserve reasoning and scientific study. Essentially the study of Anthropology is all about these aspects: the characteristics of human beings, contributing factors to different cultures for the formation of their identities, and the collective human experience. The scientific study of human beings requires a broad outlook on humanity and its nature.

This comprehensive approach is called, in other words, holism. The involvement of multiple fields of science is essential for a holistic approach to the study of humanity. This includes archaeology to trace and gather information about civilisations or groups of people who lived centuries or millennia ago. Through archaeology, it is possible to form a vague idea of the living conditions and the ecosystems of societies or communities from antiquity. Archaeologists consider while studying the fossils include the genetics and biological bodies of human beings, diet, bones, and health.

Why should you study anthropology?

Why should you study anthropology is a question we have heard many times repeatedly. To answer that, first, we must know the answer to the question, what is the study of Anthropology? In simple terms, we can say it is the study of humanity and humans. We, humans, are different from other animals because we know more about ourselves and our history; we keep everything gained throughout the centuries. Anthropology studies understanding what we were and what we are in social terms. This is the simplest answer to why we need to study anthropology.

 The comparative study approach

For the study of living conditions from a different time, anthropologists also compare human bodies and the bodies of other animals (primarily primates like apes and monkeys) from the same period. Through comparison, anthropologists can derive the similarities with other species and what makes human beings unique from them. The necessities of human beings do not change with time- water, food, shelter, and companionship remain essential for human survival. But the way of life and the means of satisfying these necessities change with time.

Apart from the psychological reasons of each individual, their religion, culture, and traditions greatly influence how they get habituated. In the case of food habits, anthropologists study the differences between groups in their method of finding food, its preparation, and distribution.

The real reason for world hunger is not the shortage of food but the distribution barriers formed by the power structure. As a fact, Amartya Sen, a 1998 Nobel Prize winner, highlighted that the distribution problem caused the entirety of famines that occurred in the 20th century, not the shortage of the products. This shows that a study of the distribution of necessities of society gives a picture of the power structure and the prevailing socio-political conditions. Another aspect that anthropologists consider while closely inspecting a society or community is the differences in the way they communicate and their dressing style. Sometimes, they use this method to study the society they live in.

Among several topics that anthropologists analyse to study their society, a few are health, economics, law, policy, and education. During the process of inferring and understanding, anthropologists consider these complex aspects, their knowledge about culture, biology, methods of communication, nature of living, and history.

The Four Subcategories

The anthropological study in the American academic perspective has four subcategories. Each category uses different approaches to the study by employing distinctive skills. At the same time, it does not mean that the subcategories do not share similarities in their study methods. One of the major similarities in the methods employed by these subcategories is that they all consist of :

• applying theories
• Engaging in systematic research methodologies
• Indulging in formulating and testing hypotheses
• Developing extensive data sets.

Archaeology

All kinds of reasoning or scientific study require evidence and proof. In addition, archaeology is the answer when a study is about subjects from long before and requires tangible evidence to deduce. Further, as the name suggests, archaeology is about archaic things. Archaeologists recover and analyse materials or ruins from a distant past and usually utilise them for research on human activity.

Archaeologists excavate the sites for materials to learn about the lifestyle and habits of a particular settlement or society. They cautiously remove items such as tools and pottery from the earth and then mark the sites of trash pits, houses, and burials for future reference. During the process, they also try to find information on the diseases affecting people and their food habits by closely inspecting the teeth and bones. Apart from recovering fossils of human beings, archaeologists also collect the residues of soils, plants, and animals from the sites where the settlements of the people once existed. They utilise these items to learn how people consumed and altered their natural resources and habitat.

The range of time one can conduct archaeological research starts from a million years ago till the present age or the modern world. Archaeologists indulge in the analysis of similarities and differences between human societies from different periods and places.

Biological Anthropology

Biological anthropology studies behavioural and biological aspects of human beings, their ancestors and non-human primates from an evolutionary perspective. In addition, biological anthropologists study and compare human beings with other animals to understand evolution and the timeline of disease breakouts and untimely death. They do this to understand how the human body evolved from the genetically closer species to survive the natural challenges they encountered from their surroundings. The research process would involve studying human beings (dead or living), other primate species such as apes and monkeys, and the ancestors of humans (fossils). Both culture and biology are correlated.

The evolution of the human body is influenced by the conditions they live in and the environmental changes. Migration, climatic changes, and changes in the food source are some of the factors that influence the evolution of human beings. A biological change in the human species can similarly influence the cultural aspects of their contemporary society.

Biological anthropologists analyse the mutual impacts of human beings' cultural and biological aspects. They indulge in finding explanations for the existent differences and similarities among human beings around the globe. Through comparative study, it has been possible to find out that humans differ in their behaviour and have minor biological differences; they share many similar characteristics and are less different than they are generally perceived to be.

Cultural Anthropology

Cultural anthropology is the study of the development of human cultures and societies. One major factor that influences the formation of civilisation and culture is the environment on which the people settle and depend. Sociocultural anthropologists study the different cultural aspects of people worldwide. Through a close analysis of the lifestyle of the people, cultural anthropologists form deductions on their culture. These studies would also help discover what people considered important at a given time and place. Understanding their resources and capabilities to utilise them would give an idea of how they interacted. Apart from the dominant culture, there would also be a lot of disagreements among people of a given community. Especially regarding how one should dress, speak, eat, or interact with each other.

According to most sociocultural anthropologists, the best means to learn about diverse cultures is by being with them. Their method involves studying various groups' practices, perspectives, and collective movements. Sociocultural anthropologists concentrate on the universality and diversity of human beings and analyse how diversities change a society's dominant ideology. The knowledge gained through such a comprehensive study of human society can enrich the understanding of human beings to a great breadth and contribute to humanity's collective philosophical advancement.

Linguistic Anthropology

How people interact with each other is a primary element in the cultural formation of a society. Linguistic anthropologists analyse how people communicate with each other and the varying forms of its existence around the globe to understand the worldviews and cultural nuances that different societies share. The language used by a specific society will have evident characteristics with the language of the culture from which they had interactions or separated. Scrutiny of how language is used in different contexts would provide perspectives on how people and societies relate. The change that occurs to a language concerning time and place and the different forms it shapes into is also connected to the cultural changes that a group of people goes through.

Linguistic anthropologists also look at people's belief systems through their modes of communication. The words used to describe family members, animals, objects, and elements involved in a person's daily life have a large significance in how they think. This further consists of collectively shared meaning that causes the formation and evolution of identities in dominant ideology. For a linguistic anthropologist, the use of language and the way of interaction are the primary means to analyse and understand the cultural and evolutionary aspects of society.

Practising or Applied Anthropology

The application or practice is of great importance for any field of study. Likewise, Practicing or applied anthropology is an elementary part of each field of study. Each field, namely: archaeology, biological anthropology, sociocultural anthropology, and linguistic anthropology, have its applications.

Applied anthropologists in these fields use anthropological ideas to find solutions to problems. For instance, if a health-related, educational or environmental issue exists in a particular locality or community, applied anthropologists utilise the ideas or theories from the fields of anthropology to study and tackle the issue. Apart from solving such cases, they can also participate in works for state or national parks and museums to help interpret history. Local bodies, federal or state governments, or NGOs also require the presence of professionally applied anthropologists. Many others work for business enterprises, like technology and software companies and retail stores, to conduct a deep analysis of how people use technology or products in their day-to-day lives. 

Essentially, applied anthropology means the practical application of anthropology. The possibilities of applying anthropological studies are endless as it deals with human beings and their becoming and their interactions and endeavours. Studies about the history of human beings concerning certain activities and the chances of outcomes are of great use in the modern world. Hence, applied anthropologists have had considerable job opportunities in recent years.

Anthropology in Different Societies

Anthropologists mainly indulge in human nature's shared characteristics and changes across places and time. However, they also analyse how each community or society is different from another. Just like how human beings of different places have characteristic differences in their:

•  ways of interaction
•  physical adaptation to the environment, 
• organising and building societies
• communication

Anthropology also has diverse ways of approaching it. Apart from the standardised approach of anthropology, newer and unorthodox ways of thinking have emerged worldwide. In addition, the four-category division of anthropology is not considered the standard method of approach in many countries. Further, anthropologists from around the globe operate together to understand humanity and its existence better. They do it with the help of international organisations and collective projects.

The Anthropology Association's World Council's objective is the promotion of worldwide cooperation and communication in anthropology. 

Job Opportunities

There are numerous employment opportunities for anthropologists in a wide variety of sectors. This includes universities, agencies under the government, Non-Governmental Organisations, health services, and businesses. The anthropology courses taught in the universities include both undergraduate and graduate levels. In addition, some professional schools offer anthropology courses in education, business, public health, and design.

Anthropology contributes considerably to interdisciplinary fields like gender studies, ethnology, and international studies. Further, many research centres find it necessary to have the aid of an anthropologist for the in-depth study of humans. Besides the universities, anthropologists get employed in private businesses, government agencies, community organisations, self-supporting research institutes, museums, the media, and service organisations. Anthropologists can also work as researchers for agencies like UNESCO and the WHO. Of all the anthropologists, only a minority work in universities, and most prefer to work as freelance consultants or professionals at agencies. They partner with others to:

• Conduct research, 
• Assess economic needs, 
• Evaluate policies, 
• Develop new programs of education, 
• Record and uncover histories of communities
• Provide services in the health field 
• Participate in socially relevant activities

As one can see, anthropologists work closely with various academic branches. In addition, their research interests are not limited to specific domains in academics and application. This wide array of domains brings out various questions and significant issues with which anthropologists deal with the present world. It is a profound endeavour to study human beings, their becoming, and their worldwide contribution to people's lives.