England’s Forgotten King Æthelstan

The King Who Forged a Nation: Why England Forgot Æthelstan

History remembers the victors, yet it has been curiously forgetful of the man who first created England. In his own lifetime, King Æthelstan was a titan of European politics, a celebrated warrior, and a ruler of immense vision. Over the ensuing centuries, however, his story has been almost entirely eclipsed.

As September 2025 marks the 1,100th anniversary of his coronation, a reassessment is long overdue. Æthelstan’s reign was not merely a footnote between more famous monarchs; it was the moment a unified English identity was first forged from disparate and warring kingdoms. He did more than just conquer territory; he established a centralised government, enacted sweeping legal reforms, and projected English power across the continent in an unprecedented manner.

While the deeds of his forebear, Alfred the Great, are celebrated, Æthelstan finished the job his predecessors started, creating a single, coherent realm. Modern historians now regard him as one of the greatest Anglo-Saxon kings, a pivotal figure whose achievements laid the very foundation of the nation. His is the story of how England truly began.

The Shadow of a Giant

Any discussion of Æthelstan must begin with the man who casts the longest shadow over Anglo-Saxon history: Alfred the Great. Alfred’s heroic defence of Wessex against Danish forces during the ninth century secured his place in national legend. More than that, it secured his fame through the power of the written word. Alfred had a brilliant biographer, Asser, a monk from Wales, who chronicled his actions and existence for posterity.

This literary fortune resulted in abundant documentation that brought the king to life for future generations, cementing his reputation as a warrior-scholar. Æthelstan, by contrast, had no such chronicler. While reports suggest a biography was composed during the tenth century, no copy has survived the ravages of time.

Consequently, his accomplishments, however monumental, have been pieced together from charters, legal codes, and the accounts of others. The lack of a personal narrative has made him a more remote, mysterious figure, easily overlooked in favour of his famous grandfather. Victorian historians, in particular, focused heavily on Alfred, making Æthelstan a mere transitional ruler in their telling of England's story.

A Kingdom Divided

Æthelstan was born around 894 into a land that was not yet England. The island was a patchwork of competing kingdoms, with Anglo-Saxon realms like Wessex and Mercia constantly battling for dominance against Viking settlers who controlled a vast swathe of the north and east known as the Danelaw. His grandfather, Alfred, had established a fragile dominance, styling himself 'King of the Anglo-Saxons'.

Expansion was the work of Æthelstan's father, known as Edward the Elder. A formidable military strategist, Edward, alongside his sister Æthelflæd, the ‘Lady of the Mercians’, pushed back the frontiers of the Danelaw. They employed an innovative military approach, creating a network of fortified towns, or ‘burhs’, to seize and hold territory.

By the time of his death, Edward had extended his rule as far north as the Humber River, which prepared the ground for his son's even greater ambitions. Æthelstan was raised in the Mercian court under the care of his aunt Æthelflæd, a decision that gave him crucial military experience and deep political connections outside of the traditional West Saxon heartland.

An Uncertain Ascent

Upon the death of Edward the Elder in July 924, the succession was far from smooth. The kingdom was split. The Mercians, who knew Æthelstan from his upbringing, immediately accepted him as their king. In Wessex, however, the throne may have gone to his half-brother, Ælfweard. This division highlighted the persistent regional rivalries that threatened to tear the kingdom apart.

The crisis, however, was brief. Ælfweard's death came in a matter of weeks, under circumstances that remain unknown to history. Despite this, Æthelstan still faced resistance in Wessex for several months, a sign of the political opposition he had to overcome. It was not until 4 September 925 that he was formally crowned as monarch of the Anglo-Saxons at Kingston upon Thames, a strategic location on the border between Wessex and Mercia.

Crowning a Vision

Æthelstan’s coronation was a carefully orchestrated event designed to project an image of power and divine right. He became the inaugural English ruler to be anointed with holy oil in a ceremony that drew heavily on Carolingian traditions from continental Europe. This was a deliberate statement, linking his new reign to the grand imperial legacy of Charlemagne and positioning him as a major European ruler.

He was also the initial king to be depicted wearing a crown on his coinage, another innovation that reinforced his regal status. The 'crowned bust' coins issued later in his reign became a powerful symbol of his authority across the newly unified kingdom. The rituals established at his coronation proved remarkably durable. Numerous prayers and ceremonies, such as the act of anointing, were still in use over a millennium later at the coronation of King Charles III in 2023, a testament to his reign's enduring influence.

The Making of England

With his authority secured in southern territories, Æthelstan turned his attention north. In 926, he arranged a marriage between his sister and Northumbria's Viking ruler, Sihtric, which included the prosperous kingdom of York. This was a shrewd diplomatic move, but fortune favoured Æthelstan further. The following year, Sihtric’s passing gave Æthelstan the opening he needed.

He marched north and took control of York, expelling Sihtric’s successor, Guthfrith. For the first time, a single ruler from the south held dominion over the whole of England. At a meeting at Eamont Bridge in Cumbria in July 927, he received the submission of the other rulers of Britain: Constantine II, King of Scotland, and the kings of Strathclyde and Wales. They acknowledged him as their overlord, a moment that many see as the true birth of England.

A Diplomat on the Throne

Æthelstan was much more than a warrior king; he was a master of diplomacy who played a central role in European politics. He astutely used marriage to build a web of alliances across the continent, arranging unions for several of his half-sisters with Europe's most influential ruling families. These marriages connected the English court to the leading dynasties of West Francia (modern France) and East Francia (modern Germany).

This flurry of dynastic activity was unprecedented. One sister, Eadgifu, was the mother of the future French king, Louis IV. Another, Eadgyth, married Otto, who would later become Holy Roman Emperor. These connections transformed England from a relative backwater into a major political player. Æthelstan's court became a cosmopolitan centre, attracting scholars and clergy from across Europe.

Europe’s Power Broker

Æthelstan's influence extended beyond marriage ties. His court became a safe haven for exiled European nobility, earning him a reputation as a protector of displaced royalty. He fostered several young princes, including Alan II of Brittany and Haakon of Norway. He actively supported their claims, providing them with fleets and soldiers to help them regain their ancestral lands from Viking invaders.

He also sheltered his own nephew Louis, the heir to the French throne, after his father was deposed. In 936, Æthelstan provided crucial assistance for Louis to return to France and claim his crown. By the end of his reign, Æthelstan was arguably the most well-connected and respected ruler in Western Europe, with nearly every Christian leader on the continent counted as an ally.

The Lawgiver King

Following the example set by his grandfather Alfred, Æthelstan undertook a comprehensive reform of the legal system. More legal texts survive from the period of his rule than from any other tenth-century English king, demonstrating his commitment to establishing order and justice. At a great assembly in Grateley, Hampshire, he issued a wide-ranging law code that sought to create a unified legal framework for his diverse kingdom.

These laws addressed pressing social issues, particularly the widespread problem of theft, which Æthelstan viewed as a serious threat to social stability. The Grateley code prescribed harsh penalties, including the death penalty for thieves over the age of twelve caught stealing goods of a certain value. His codes also promoted the king's authority as paramount, superseding local customs and creating a more centralised state.

A Standard for the Realm

To foster economic unity and assert his authority, Æthelstan also reformed the kingdom’s currency. While his predecessors had begun to standardise coinage, Æthelstan took this a step further. His laws, issued at Grateley, stipulated that there was to be only one type of coinage across his entire dominion. This was a radical move in an age of regional mints.

After conquering York, he introduced a new design known as the "circumscription cross" type. Crucially, these coins bore a powerful piece of propaganda, the inscription ‘Rex Totius Britanniae’, which translates to King of All Britain, advertising his unparalleled status. These uniform, high-quality silver pennies inspired trust and helped to integrate the various regions of his new kingdom into a single economic entity.

A Pious Collector

Like many medieval rulers, Æthelstan was a deeply pious man who understood the power of faith to unify a kingdom. He was a great patron of the church, founding and endowing monasteries and churches throughout his lands. His household became a major centre of English learning and laid the groundwork for the great Benedictine monastic reform movement that would follow later in the century.

He was also one of Anglo-Saxon England’s most avid collectors of holy relics. Royal agents were dispatched across Europe to purchase these sacred items, and foreign rulers sent relics as diplomatic gifts to win his favour. These included priceless treasures such as a piece of the True Cross and the sword of the Roman Emperor Constantine. Æthelstan then generously distributed these relics to churches across England, enhancing their prestige and reinforcing his position as a devout Christian king.

A Court of Many Tongues

Contrary to modern myths, particularly those promoted by far-right ideologues, tenth-century England was not a monolithic or isolated society. Under Æthelstan, it was a kingdom with strong international connections and a culturally diverse population. His royal assemblies were cosmopolitan gatherings, attended by people from across Britain and mainland Europe.

Within his court, one could hear a multitude of languages spoken, including Old Norse, Latin, Old English, and Old Welsh. This linguistic variety reflected the reality of the kingdom he had forged from different peoples, including West Saxons, Mercians, and Danes. This diversity was a core feature of his realm, challenging the misconception of a one-dimensional "Anglo-Saxon" culture.

The Great War of 937

Æthelstan’s supremacy did not go unchallenged. His growing power was deeply resented by the other rulers in Britain, who saw him as a threat to their independence. In 937, a formidable alliance formed against him. Olaf Guthfrithson, the Norse King of Dublin, joined forces with Constantine II, King of Scotland, and Owain, King of Strathclyde, to invade England.

This coalition that included Scottish fighters, Britons, and Viking warriors represented the greatest threat Æthelstan would ever face. Olaf’s fleet of over 600 ships reportedly sailed up the Humber to join his allies, aiming to reclaim the Viking kingdom of York and shatter Æthelstan’s new English union. The stage was set for a confrontation that would decide the fate of the island.

Brunanburh's Bloody Field

The resulting clash is known as the Battle of Brunanburh, one of the largest and bloodiest confrontations of the Anglo-Saxon era. Though its exact location is still debated, it was a brutal, day-long struggle. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which preserves a famous poem celebrating the event, describes an immense slaughter, claiming that never before had so many been killed by the sword on the island.

Æthelstan, fighting alongside his younger half-brother Edmund, led the English forces to a decisive victory. The invading army was routed, and the battlefield was left littered with the bodies of five kings and seven of Olaf’s earls. Olaf and the remnants of his army fled back to Dublin, while Constantine also retreated north, having lost a son in the fighting. The victory at Brunanburh was a triumph that cemented Æthelstan’s rule and preserved the unity of England.

The Aftermath of Victory

The victory at Brunanburh sent shockwaves across Britain and Europe. It was a resounding confirmation of English military power and Æthelstan's status as the pre-eminent ruler of the island. The battle is often cited as a crucial moment in shaping an English national identity, a point where the men of Wessex and Mercia fought together to defend a unified kingdom.

While the immediate threat was defeated, the campaign was costly, and Æthelstan's hold on the far north remained tenuous. The battle did not permanently end resistance to southern rule, but it did discourage another large-scale invasion for a generation, allowing the concept of a single England to take deeper root.

A Fragile Creation

Despite his immense personal authority and military success, the realm Æthelstan constructed rested on fragile foundations. So much of its unity had depended on his individual leadership. Following his passing at Gloucester on 27 October 939, the kingdom he had forged quickly began to fracture.

The Vikings in Dublin seized the opportunity to reclaim York, and Northumbria once again broke away from English rule. This rapid fragmentation demonstrates just how precocious Æthelstan's achievement had been. It showed that England's creation was not an inevitable process but one driven forward by his personal ambition and political skill.

The Enduring Idea

Although the physical kingdom fragmented upon Æthelstan's death, the vision for a united England did not die with him. The administrative and legal structures he had put in place remained. His successors, his half-brothers Edmund and Eadred, continued the fight to restore English authority over the north.

The concept of a single, overarching English realm had been established in the minds of its rulers and its people. After years of further conflict, York was finally and permanently reconquered in 954. From that point on, England remained a unitary kingdom, never to be permanently split again. The precedent Æthelstan had set proved stronger than the man himself.

 Image Credit -by Ethan Doyle White, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Lost to the Pages

So why did such a monumental figure fade from popular memory? The main cause lies in the lack of a contemporary biography. Without a dedicated storyteller to shape his narrative, his memory was left vulnerable to the shifting priorities of later chroniclers.

Propaganda campaigns in the decades following his passing elevated the standing of later kings, such as Edgar the Peaceful, who was celebrated for his role in church reform. This effectively eclipsed Æthelstan's own significant efforts to revive religion and learning. Over time, his reign came to be seen as a mere prelude to the achievements of others, rather than the foundational moment it truly was. He became a king lost between the lines of history.

A King's Image

Though he lacked a biographer, Æthelstan showed a keen awareness of his public persona. He meticulously cultivated the image of a grand and powerful Christian monarch. He understood that symbols mattered, from the adoption of the crown on his coins to the grand titles he used in his royal charters, which declared him ruler of all Britain.

Arguably, the most crucial surviving depiction of him is a manuscript portrait from his own reign, the oldest surviving portrait of an English ruler. The image shows a crowned Æthelstan with a book, in a posture of reverence before St Cuthbert. It is a truly significant visual artifact from England's past, a carefully crafted depiction of a pious, learned, and powerful ruler.

Rediscovering Æthelstan

For centuries, Æthelstan remained a figure known mostly to specialists of the early middle ages. However, a new wave of historical scholarship is working to restore him to his rightful place in the national story. Recent biographies by academics have brought his achievements to a wider audience, arguing powerfully for his significance.

The 1,100th anniversary of his coronation in September 2025 has provided a focal point for this renewed interest. Events are planned to mark the occasion, including a celebratory festival in Kingston upon Thames, the place of his crowning, and a commemorative pilgrimage walk from his burial place in Malmesbury. There are also calls from historians to create a permanent national memorial.

A Legacy for Today

The story of Æthelstan offers more than just a corrective to the historical record. His reign provides valuable perspectives on understanding English identity today. It overturns the simplistic and often politically motivated idea that England started as a uniform culture. Instead, it reveals a kingdom forged from diversity, with profound and intricate relationships with continental Europe.

Æthelstan’s England was a cosmopolitan society where different peoples, cultures, and languages came together under a single ruler. He was a monarch who governed a multi-ethnic realm, balanced regional identities with central authority, and projected English influence far beyond the island's shores. As the nation continues to navigate its place in the world, the story of its forgotten founder feels more relevant than ever.